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248. “The Church is Jesus himself.” The heart (and the heresy) of Roman Catholicism?

Most recently, evangelical theologian Henri Blocher argued that at the heart of Roman Catholicism lies the concept of the Church as the continuing incarnation of Jesus Christ. The idea is that, in a strong and “real” sense, the Roman Catholic Church is the sacramental and mystical body of Jesus, as if His incarnation were prolonged in it. Obviously, Blocher was not inventing anything. The theological point is affirmed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (no. 521), evoked by the Second Vatican Council (Lumen Gentium nn. 8, 48, and 52), and argued with different nuances and emphases by leading modern Roman Catholic theologians such as Johann Adam Möhler, John Henry Newman, Mathias-Joseph Scheeben, and Yves Congar.[1]

Another testimony confirming this view is added to these authoritative voices. It is that of Robert Hugh Benson (1871-1914) in the book Christ in the Church. A Volume of Religious Essays (London: Longman, Green and Co., 1911). Until recently, I was unaware of the works of Benson, who may not be central to contemporary Roman Catholic theology, but neither is he negligible.

Converted from Anglicanism (after John Henry Newman) to Roman Catholicism under the pontificate of Leo XIII, Benson became a Catholic priest while continuing to write novels, short stories, and various essays. A brilliant and eclectic personality, as a convert, Benson looked for and explored the “heart” of Roman Catholicism. Thus, in the pamphlet Christ in the Church, he tackles head-on the self-understanding of the Church of Rome and dissects its meaning.

Benson begins with Jesus’ words, “This is my body, which is given for you” (Luke 22:19): “that act was but a continuation (though in another sense) of that first act known as the Incarnation” (8). Roman Catholics believe that “the Church is in a real sense the body of Christ… in the Church He lives, speaks, and acts as He lived, spoke, and acted in Galilee and Jerusalem” (9). The analogy is thus established: just as Jesus Christ lived two thousand years ago, so “He lives His mystical life today in a body drawn from the human race in general – called the Catholic Church” (10). It follows that the actions of the Church are His, “her words are His, her life is His” (id.). Here is the Roman Catholic thesis briefly put: “in a real sense, she is Himself” (id.).
 
On the basis of the extension between Christ and the Church to the point that the Church is Christ, Benson continues: “The written Gospel is the record of a past life; the Church is the living Gospel and record of a present life” (11). The Vine and the branches “are in the most direct sense identical” (12). For the Catholic, “Jesus Christ still lives upon earth as surely, though in another and what must be called a ‘mystical’ sense, as He lived two thousand years ago” (18). Moreover, “we have present upon earth in the Catholic Church that same personality and energy as lived upon the earth two thousand years ago in the Figure of Jesus Christ” (25). Therefore, “the same authority must be predicated of the voice of the Church as of the Voice of Christ” (21). No religion, “except one, and that the Catholic Church, claims to be actually Divine and to utter the Voice of God” (32). If the Church is the continuation of the Incarnation, “she is indeed what she claims to be — the one and unique organ of Divine Revelation” (40).
 
In this sense, the infallibility of the Church and its Roman Pontiff is simply inevitable and obviously true because “If infallibility be predicated of Jesus Christ, it must be predicated of Him in His Mystical as well as in His Natural Body” (22). In the Roman Catholic view, there is therefore a transitive property between Christ and the Catholic Church to the point that what can be predicated of the one passes to the other. It is the theological logic that is in the DNA of Roman Catholicism and makes it what it is.
 
The identification is so complete that “we, living members of the Church on earth, have the same personality and energy that existed in the figure of Jesus Christ two thousand years ago” (20). This means that Christ still suffers in the Church (10) and “Jesus Christ is still resurrected, not once or twice, but repeatedly in the Catholic Church” (22). The Church is so identified with Christ that she continues to “redeem humanity” (33).

Now, despite being a Catholic priest and a voice of early 20th-century Anglo-Saxon culture, Benson is not one of the leading voices in Roman Catholic theology. Yet, in his sparkling and drumming style, he gives voice to what Catholic teaching and official theology have developed over the centuries: the church is the extension of the incarnation of Jesus Christ.
 
Evangelical theologian Gregg Allison speaks of the “Christ–church interconnection.”[2] The church is considered a prolongation of the incarnation, mirroring Christ as a divine–human reality, acting as an altera persona Christi, a second “Christ.” The threefold ministry of Christ as King, Priest, and Prophet is thus transposed to the Roman Church–in its hierarchical rule, its magisterial interpretation of the Word, and its administration of the sacraments. There is never solus Christus (Christ alone), only Christus in ecclesia (Christ in the church) and ecclesia in Christo (the church in Christ).
 
The emphasis on the Christ–church interconnection seems to forget that the church is still a divine creature, belonging to the reality created by God and marked by sin, while Christ is the divine Creator, the One from whom all things are and who is perfect now and always. When we talk about Christology, we are talking about the unique relationship between human nature and divine nature in the person of Jesus Christ on the side of the Creator. When we talk about ecclesiology, we are talking about the unity of divine and human elements from the side of creation. The distinction between Creator and creature is crucial to avoid the trap of elevating the church into a quasi-divine body.

There are enormous problems with this thesis: it goes beyond the biblical image of the body of Christ (Christ is the head, we are members!), it deifies a human community, it idolizes an institution, and it usurps what should be recognized only to Jesus Christ according to Scripture alone (sola Scriptura, Scripture alone!). It goes beyond and against what is written in the Bible. Yet it gives access to the deep bowels of Roman Catholicism of all times. Ultimately, Roman Catholicism is a heresy that took Christology and transplanted it into its ecclesiology. And in doing so, Rome distorted it.

[1] See Roberto Baglioni, La chiesa “continua incarnazione” del Verbo: da J.A. Möhler al Concilio Vaticano II (Napoli: Editrice Domenicana Italiana, 2013).

[2] Gregg R. Allison, Roman Catholic Theology and Practice. An Evangelical Assessment (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2014) pp. 56-66.

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247. “If We Want to Be Christian, We Must Be Marian.” Two Remarks from the 26th International Mariological Marian Congress

It was Pope Paul VI who, in the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council, gave a homily in which he stated, “If we want to be Christian, we must be Marian” (Homily, 24th April 1970). He was not saying that in order to be Christian, one must believe what the Bible says about Mary, i.e. her involvement in the incarnation and earthly ministry of Jesus. His point was much deeper than that. 
 
What did “Marian” mean for him? Well, Vatican II had just ended, and the Council had dedicated the 8th chapter of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church “Lumen Gentium” to the Roman Catholic doctrine of Mary, entitled “The Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God in the Mystery of Christ and the Church.” The theological grand scheme of “Lumen Gentium” wanted to relate Christ to the (Roman) Church organically. According to Rome, the latter is so interconnected with the former that it is one with him. Roman Catholic Mariology stems from the Christ-Church interconnection and is a further inner-connection with it. The “logic” of Vatican II is that if you have Christ, you have the Christ-Church, and if you have the Christ-Church, you must inevitably have Christ-Church-Mary. The three are embedded and implied in one another.  This is why Paul VI could say, “If we want to be Christian, we must be Marian.” 
 
A further remark needs to be made here. For Pope Paul VI, to be a Marian Christian was to embrace the fully orbed Roman Catholic Mariology, including the Marian dogmas (the 1854 dogma of the immaculate conception of Mary and the 1950 dogma of her bodily assumption) and the devotions dedicated to her (rosary, Marian titles, prayers, etc.). Roman Catholic Mariology always involves a thick doctrinal commitment to the full account of how Rome theologizes, celebrates, and venerates Mary. 

The statement by Pope Paul VI resounded clearly and loudly at the 26th International Mariological Marian Congress that took place in Rome (4-6 September) on the topic “Jubilee and Synodality: A Church with a Marian Face and Practice” and organized by the Pontifical International Marian Academy (PAMI). More than 600 Marian scholars from all over the world contributed to the program that included plenary sessions, language groups, and an audience with Pope Leo XIV.

“Mary Belongs to Catholic Dogmatics, not to Catholic devotions only”
The first day of the conference, fr. Stefano Cecchin OFM, PAMI’s chairman, was interviewed on the significance of this scholarly gathering. He voiced a growing concern in the academic Mariological world that Mariology is not given proper attention in the Catholic Church. Cecchin stressed the fundamental importance of Mariology for Catholic doctrine and practice, even in view of the “new evangelization.” For the Catholic scholar, Marianism lies at the core of the (Roman Catholic) Christian message and faith. 
 
In Cecchin’s words, “Mary Belongs to Catholic dogmatics, not to Catholic devotions only; she is the model of the Church,” and again, making implicit reference to the connection Christ-Church-Mary, “The face of Jesus is the face of Mary.” At this point, he recalled Paul VI’s statement: “If we want to be Christian, we must be Marian.” Always echoing the trajectory of Vatican II, Cecchin said that it is “Mary who is the key that opens for us the mystery of Christ and the Church.”
 
In another interview published on the Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano, Cecchin further argued that “Mary is the woman who has opened the way to God and entered a fundamental relationship with Him.” Here we see an important voice in present-day Roman Catholic Mariology re-affirming its dogmatic centrality in the Roman Catholic account of the Christian faith, i.e. a confirmation that when we deal with Roman Catholic Mariology we are dealing with Roman Catholic doctrines of God (Trinity), Christ (Christology), the Church (ecclesiology), salvation (soteriology), and the Christian life (spirituality). The Roman Mary is not located only in the latter segment, but is pervasively and decisively present on the whole spectrum of the Roman Catholic worldview.

No Less, but More Mariology
The participants at the congress were also honored with an audience with Pope Leo XIV. On this occasion, the Pope gave a speech that condensed some of the Mariological traits of the unfolding teaching of the beginning of his pontificate.
 
In his words, “A Church with a Marian heart always better preserves and understands the hierarchy of truths of faith, integrating mind and heart, body and soul, universal and local, person and community, humanity and cosmos.”

Here, the Pope speaks of the Church having a “Marian heart”: the fundamental organ, the center of life, the vital core of the Church has Mary in it. According to Leo, possessing it fosters theological clarity and integration. Without it, the church disintegrates. This is hardly compatible with the Bible-attested, Trinitarianly framed, and Christ-centered message of the biblical Gospel. If Mary is at the center, as she appears to be in the Pope’s view, she is not the biblical Mary: she is rather someone who has obscured, if not replaced, Christ.
 
Pope Leo again:
 
“As the perfect cooperator with the Holy Spirit, she never ceases to open doors, build bridges, break down walls and help humanity to live in peace and in the harmony of diversity.”
 
In this view, Mary has a providential role in humanity’s history and destiny. Is it really biblically sustainable that Mary is a “perfect cooperator” with the Spirit? It looks like an unduly inflated task for the biblical Mary. The Bible teaches nothing about her role after her presence among the early Christian community in Acts 2. The Father’s providence is in the hands of the Risen Son and applied by the Holy Spirit through living agents and multiple factors. Mary is among the myriad of Christians awaiting the resurrection, but has no providential role whatsoever. The Roman Catholic view is entirely based on non-biblical traditions accrued in time, having become central, and never reformed in the light of the Gospel.
 
Here is the most important thing underlined by Pope Leo:
 
“This is why the Church needs Mariology. It should be considered and promoted in academic centers, shrines and parish communities, associations and movements, institutes of consecrated life, as well as in places where contemporary cultures are forged, valuing the limitless inspiration offered by art, music and literature.”
 
In a word: according to the Augustinian Pope, the Church needs more Mariology, not less. For Rome, Mariology is central, and its supreme leader believes that she needs even more Mariology. This is the outcome of the Mariological congress with the papal stamp of approval, and it is not an evangelically promising prospect for the Roman Church. 

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246. John Henry Newman, “doctor” of the church. The most significant theological act by Leo XIV (so far)

The conferral of the title of “Doctor of the Church” on John Henry Newman (1801-1890) is one of the first theologically significant acts of Leo XIV’s papacy and has a symbolic value of some importance. For this reason, it must be noted. The title is a recognition of authority and an indication that the work of the “doctor” (who, before being declared as such, was recognized as a “saint”) is an important source of inspiration for Roman Catholicism.
 
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes 38 Doctors of the Church (including four women): from ancient and medieval fathers such as Augustine to Thomas Aquinas, from the anti-Protestant apologist Robert Bellarmine to the champion of Baroque Mariology, Alfonsus Liguori. The list of doctors reflects the catholicity of Rome: its desire to embrace the West and the East, theologians and mystics, antiquity and modernity. Roman Catholicism is a formidable religious aggregator, and its “doctors” are all pieces of its theological puzzle. The last doctor to be recognized was John Henry Newman. Why Newman?

Here are two possible reasons.

1. Newman was a “convert” from Anglicanism.
In his youth, he had been an Anglican with some evangelical leanings. Then, studying the development of dogmas in his own way (in his essay The Development of Christian Doctrine [1845]), Newman concluded that Roman Catholicism (including the Council of Trent and Marian dogmas) was apostolic Christianity and that the Church of Rome was the true church. He later became a priest, a revered Catholic theologian, and a cardinal of the Holy Roman Church. His famous phrase has become one of the mantras of converts from Protestantism to Catholicism: “To be deep in history is to cease to be a Protestant.” It has to be said that Newman’s previous religious experience was never shaped around the two gospel pillars of the supreme authority of Scripture and justification by faith alone. Moreover, for all its apparent sophistication and subsequent success, his theory of the development of dogma assumes the infallibility of Rome rather than proving it.
 
Having said that, Newman’s biography embodies that of a convert to Roman Catholicism for whom Protestantism is theologically infantile and devoid of historical memory; Roman Catholicism, on the other hand, encompasses the fullness and richness of the faith. Many stories of conversion to Rome have found a model in Newman.
 
He is already considered the patron saint of Anglicans who became Roman Catholics. Now that he has been proclaimed a “doctor,” could it be because Leo XIV wants to present him as a model for Protestants of all sorts who are fascinated by the “great tradition” (e.g., the recent embrace of Anglicanism by theologian Matthew Barrett)?
 
Before Newman, Pope Francis had conferred the honorary title of “doctor” on Irenaeus of Lyon (b. 130). In doing so, Roman Catholicism appropriated a great Father of the church, also esteemed by evangelicals for his Trinitarian doctrine of creation. Now, with Newman as a “doctor,” Rome wants to point out the Roman Catholic way of reading the Fathers and delving into Tradition to those who flirt with it.
 
2. Newman is one of the main inspirations for the theology of Vatican II.
Newman laid the foundations for a dynamic understanding of Tradition by promoting the perspective of Roman Catholicism as an organic and living whole. If in the 19th century neo-Thomist Catholicism risked being stuck in a closed and doctrinaire system, focused entirely on the defense of “Roman” institutions and practices, Newman introduced the category of “development” into Roman Catholic theology. This is part of the grammar of “updating” (aggiornamento) adopted by John XXIII in convening the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) and then in the “renewal” that followed.
 
In fact, it is impossible to understand Roman Catholic theology today, pluralistic and changing, without referring (also) to Newman. Today, Roman Catholicism is not fixated on merely repeating the past, but has rediscovered the dynamic of inclusion, even of “reform,” while remaining committed to its unchanging nature. Because of his theology of “development,” Newman is unpopular with traditionalist Catholics (for example, the Society of St. Pius X).
 
However, he is not an exponent of “liberal” or “progressive” theology. It is no coincidence that it was Benedict XVI who beatified him in 2010, appreciating “his zeal for the renewal of ecclesial life in fidelity to the apostolic tradition.” For Newman, Roman Catholicism is the “authentic development” of Christianity, and it is this constant “development” that nourishes its life and activities.
 
By elevating Newman to “doctor” (among other things, it was Leo XIII who made him a cardinal), Leo XIV is fully in line with Vatican II, which updated the catholicity of the Church without losing sight of its Roman character.
 
For (at least) these two reasons, Leo XIV accomplished perhaps the most significant theological act of his early pontificate: in the wake of Vatican II, with an eye toward attracting non-Catholics, primarily restless Protestants, to Rome.

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245. Jubilee of Youth. Evangelical Impressions from Rome

Whether there were 500,000 or more or less, it matters little because during the week of the Jubilee of Youth (July 28-August 3) Rome was filled with groups of young people from all over the world. Waving flags and wearing caps, these young people crossed the Holy Doors of Rome’s basilicas, participated in plenary events (above all, the vigil with Pope Leo XIV at Tor Vergata on August 2), national events (in various parishes), and went to confession at the Circus Maximus, etc. In short, they did what the Roman Catholic jubilee is all about: the pilgrimage to Rome and the devotional activities prescribed to obtain an indulgence. In addition, a memorable experience was organized for them.
 
One thing is certain: there is perhaps no other institution in the world capable of gathering half a million people from all over the world in one place for an entire week. The Roman Catholic Church has demonstrated that it is still capable of bringing together, organizing, and inspiring masses of young people and of “rejuvenating” its language, while always filling it with symbolic and evocative elements that are typical of its religious vision.
 
Beyond the folkloric and youth-oriented aspects, I followed three moments of the Jubilee of Youth in particular: the meetings of Roman Catholic influencers, the Italian and North American groups, and the final vigil with the Pope.
 
1. The first moment provided an insight into the world of Roman Catholic initiatives in the digital world: influencers, digital content creators, bloggers, etc., especially in Latin America (Mexico above all), but not only there. The Catholic Church is taking the digital challenge seriously and is seeing a flourishing of many online initiatives. Institutional initiatives (the official information channels of the Vatican and the dioceses) are only a small part of this: what is really thriving are the YouTube channels of lay people and religious figures who, using various languages and targeting different audiences, entertain, feed the religious imagination, and engage in Roman Catholic apologetics.
 
The speech by Pope Francis’ very influential spin doctor, Jesuit Antonio Spadaro, encapsulates the Catholic vision for the digital age. Using the metaphor of the “fire” that burns within, Spadaro outlined a digital presence of the Roman Catholic Church necessary to  “humanize” the world, create dialogue, and foster unity. The digital presence must be made human: this is the mission indicated by Spadaro. It seems to echo, in different words, what Pope Francis said (even if the expression was Benedict XVI’s), namely that the Church grows by attraction, not by proselytism. The Catholic approach must be soft, focusing on commonalities and non-confrontational. There is a noticeable difference between Spadaro’s humanistic, pan-religious, and “Catholic” approach and that of many North American Catholic apologists, who are instead polemical and controversial, I would say “Roman.” I will return to this difference in posture and language later.

2. As already mentioned, the Jubilee of Youth was attended by hundreds of groups from many countries. The Italian group was the largest. It had a significant meeting during the Mass on July 31, where Cardinal Matteo Zuppi gave the homily. In it, the usual words of Italian Catholicism since the time of Pope Francis resounded: “everyone, everyone, everyone is included,” peace, no to weapons, friendship. Occasionally there was a reference to Christ, but outside the biblical context and the Gospel message. It was yet another humanistic approach in line with Spadaro’s speech to influencers.
 
The tone was different among the group of young North American Catholics. At the meeting held in the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, the experiential language used was evangelical in tone, and the songs (accompanied by guitar and keyboard) could have been sung at an evangelical gathering. Intertwined with these “personal” traits, to which European Catholics are unaccustomed, were the typical markers of Roman Catholic identity: Marian accents, saints, and the Eucharist. The speech by Bishop Robert Barron was emblematic. Barron is a star in the US Catholic online world, as well as a shrewd theologian. In his speech, Barron spoke of “Christ the Lord” using terms that the best evangelical pastor would have been pleased. But then he spoke with great pride, almost with arrogance, of the Roman Catholic Church as the only human organization to have survived throughout history, and of the pope as the only uninterrupted successor of Peter (and Christ). He then urged the youth to encounter Christ in the Eucharist of the Catholic Church and the figure of the pope. Here, the European humanist Roman Catholicism (with its slogans: “we are all included,” “let us love one another,” “let us bring hope to a world at war”) took a back seat. What prevailed was an evangelical-like, yet deeply Roman, language of North American Catholicism. 
 
This is to say that Roman Catholicism speaks different languages with varying religious tones: depending on the context in which it operates, it is able to adapt its message accordingly. In Europe, it resembles that of pacifists and multicultural humanism. In the US, it resembles that of an evangelical denomination. In both cases, the Roman Catholic soul is the standard matrix that shapes everything. The Jubilee of Youth was a stage on which the Roman Catholic Church was at work, speaking her language with different codes and accents.

3. The highlight of the Jubilee of Youth was the prayer vigil with Pope Leo XIV in Tor Vergata. Some reports claim that a million people were present. In the afternoon, a non-stop concert featuring musicians and bands from the international Catholic scene took place. In the evening, the Pope was asked three questions: about friendship, life choices, and how to meet Christ. Regarding the first question, Leo stated that we already have Christ as our friend, assuming that this is a universal condition acquired through baptism. He did not speak of repentance and faith in Jesus Christ, nor did he emphasize the need to reject idols. Regarding the second question, there was noticeable pressure on young people to consider the priestly and religious vocation, perhaps motivated by the fact that the number of priests, friars, and nuns is declining. On the third point, he insisted that Christ is encountered and worshipped in the Eucharist administered by the (Catholic) Church. In his answers, the pope quoted, among others, Augustine, John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Francis, but there was no intentional invitation to read Scripture.

To summarize, the papal message of the vigil was: “Christ is already in us (through baptism), let us meet him in the Catholic Church where he is truly present (in the Eucharist). For the rest, let us develop our common humanity with all.” While there are some elements taken from the Gospel, their meaning, their combination, the heart of the discourse was Roman Catholic, but not gospel-centered.

Young people were told that Christ is already in them, not received by faith but by a sacrament; that Christ is also in everyone, not because of adherence to the Gospel, but because of a shared humanity; that Christ is present, not in the biblical Word, but in the Eucharist; that they are missionaries, not to witness repentance from sins and faith in Jesus Christ, but to meet their neighbors and develop universal fraternity. It is difficult to imagine that this message would challenge anyone. Everyone feels reinforced in their own way in what they already are: believers, non-believers, and those with differing beliefs; if anything, they are attracted to the Roman Catholic Church, which encompasses everyone. This is the Roman Catholic gospel. Is it the biblical gospel?

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244. The Puzzle of Pope Leo XIV. Towards a Geopolitics of the New Papacy

It is still too early to get an idea of ​​what Leo XIV’s papacy will be like. Only now are the first biographies starting to come out (e.g. Matthew Bunsun, Leo XIV. Portrait of the First American Pope, 2025; Christopher White, Pope Leo XIV. Inside the Conclave and the Dawn of a New Papacy, 2025; Antonio Preziosi, Leone XIV. La via disarmata e disarmante, 2025), generally with a hagiographic or journalistic tone. While Pope Prevost takes his first steps, many are starting to ask what his main directions and priorities will be.

For now, it is possible to move by clues and traces that need to be collected and interpreted. On the geopolitical front, the magazine Limes has tried to draw a conceptual map for what lies ahead for Pope Leo. The Roman Catholic Church, with the Vatican at its center, is also a player on the global chessboard; it represents 1.4 billion people (18% of the world’s population), has diplomatic relations with most countries, and has a say in the main documentation of global politics. It is not surprising that a geopolitical magazine dedicated an entire issue to it: The Puzzle of Pope Leo, Limes (5/2025).

The starting point is precisely the choice of the word “puzzle,” i.e. a picture to be guessed from the few available elements. Here are some suggestions from the various articles, many coming from political scientists, journalists, and (a few) theologians of moderate progressive culture, with the exception of R. Reno, editor of the conservative American magazine First Things.

First, the person of the pope is bearer of unusual traits: a “Latin Yankee,” a “Pan-American” man, a Euro-American, a personality with a “hybrid” cultural identity and a calm and determined character. A “lion” among other global lions (e.g. Trump, Putin, Xi Jinping). A son of the Fourth Rome (the USA) on the throne of the First Rome in a world where overall balances are being redefined in the presence of wars and threats of war. The initial impression is that, after the geopolitical shuffling of cards by Francis (who appeared hostile to Ukraine and Israel, subject of China, and emotionally distant from the US and Europe), Leo brings the boat of Peter to sail in the direction of the Atlanticism that was of John Paul II, slender towards the West and skeptical about the still “far” East (e.g. China). It is true that there would have been no Leo XIV without Francis, but the current pope is not a replica of the previous in the geopolitical positioning of the Church of Rome.

The choice of the name Leo is another clue that many observers focus on. Leo XIII, the predecessor in choosing the name, wrote the encyclical “Rerum Novarum” (1891), which opened the Catholic Church to the social question and living conditions of workers. Leo XIII inaugurated the era of the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church. The analysts of Limes read in Prevost’s choice to call himself Leo the commitment to address the social issue par excellence of this generation: artificial intelligence (AI). There are already signs in this direction, but many expect an encyclical (i.e. the highest authoritative document by a Pope) dedicated to AI, believing that the Roman Catholic Church is the only global moral agency able to subvert the exclusive interests of the war industry and the techno-globalist powers.

Another piece of the Leo puzzle is its relationship with the USA and North American Catholicism. As is well known, Francis was not loved by a consistent part of American Catholics, and financial support for Rome’s budget has decreased significantly over the years, also due to American disaffection with Pope Francis. Now, Leo is asked to sew up the tear and restart the donations that the Catholic Church desperately needs for its bleeding budgets. Then there is the relationship with the US Administration, especially with the “catholic” vice president, J.D. Vance, who interprets a conservative Catholicism but is not exactly deferential towards ecclesiastical authorities. Soon after his election, there has been no lack of opportunities for polemics between Vance and the Vatican on migration policy and also on the interpretation of the ordo amoris, i.e. the differentiated responsibilities of Roman Catholic action. Leo XIV faces the challenge of resetting and re-establishing relationships, keeping together the legacy of Francis and the American Catholic system.

A final consideration needs to address the relationship with Protestantism, although limited to the US context. Many of the geopolitical issues at stake involve “ecumenical” relations with the Orthodox patriarchates of Moscow and Kiev, or inter-religious relations such as those with the Jewish world. But what about Protestantism? Many observers (by the way, all Catholic, some practicing, most nominal) note the state of “crisis” of American Protestantism: polarized, jagged, angry, flattened with or against Trump, under the shadow cone of politics rather than living in its own light. The crisis also has to do with the nationalist culture that, for them, is a child of Protestant individualism. In their view, in the fractured context of North American society, Catholic communitarianism (i.e. the Catholic insistence that human life is life-in-community in the context of the Catholic Church) would be better equipped than Protestant individualism to offer a prospect not only of economic wealth but also of social welfare. In this sense, “Rome alone” would be able to build a third way between the woke culture of the left and the nationalism of individualistic conservatism. There is an expectation that Pope Leo will be able to exert an attraction from Protestantism towards Roman Catholicism in American society. Evangelicals should be aware of these trends and consider Rome as a spiritual competitor rather than an ally, due to her different account of the gospel from the biblical one.

These analyses are not theological and do not grasp central elements of the papacy as an ecclesiastical institution which is based on doctrinal commitments. In this sense, they only grasp the “political” side of Rome but not her theological vision. However, they can help start to put together the pieces of the beginning of this pontificate puzzle.